Muslim rule of Sicily

From the 827 arrival of Euphemius in Sicily, the Muslim Aghlabid dynasty controlled the island, appointing governors and major officials. They set up various "gema" or city councils to manage public works and maintain social order. They encourages small holdings and improved irrigation systems. They also established a tax system. Non-Muslims living in a Muslim country are called "dhimmi". Dhimmi paid a special tax called the "jizya" for protection from foreign/internal aggression, but if one converted to Islam, the tax was waved. Everyone on the island paid a land tax called "kharaj". Mulsim and non-Muslim populations coexisted rather peacefully and maintained their own religions. It was during this time that the island became a major location of interaction between Muslim and non-Mulsim populations, and that allowed the transmission of considerable Arab learning to Europeans. In 909 the Fatimid dynasty assumed control over Sicily. They put down several revolts and uprisings. In 965 the Caliph appointed Hassan al Kalbi as emir of Sicily, giving it a de facto independent status. Within 100 years, Sicily had 3 separate emirs, but the arrival of the Normans under Robert de Guiscard in 1060 effectively ender Muslim rule. When Robert arrived, the native Sicilians joined his revolt. The conquest of Sicily by the Normans wasn't completed until 1091, ushering in a period of Muslim repression because of policies of the Roman church and perhaps, a little revenge. These measures led to organized resistance among the Muslims and Norman reprisals. The Normans also took over major buidlings and mosques, converting them to their own uses. As we depicted in Malice Stalks the Leopard, the commercial trade between Ifriqiya and Sicily was significant, but increasing fanaticism about religion on both sides led to an expulsion of all Muslims in 1242 to Lucera.